


• - 




CIass^D33_X. 
Book _JL>- 5 ../A€s-. 






^'■9^j : ^^^ 



10— B (Of Tenn. Geol. Surv. Series) 

STATE OF TENNESSEE— STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE H. ASHLEY, State Geologist 

IN COOPERATION WITH THE FOREST SERVICE 
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE 



BY W. W. ASHE 
Forest Assistant, Forest Service 



EXTRACT (B) FROM BULLETIN NO. 10, FOREST STUDIES 
IN TENNESSEE 




NASHVILLE 

BAIRD-WARD PRINTING CO. 
JANUARY 1912 



10— B (Of Tenn. Geol. Surv. Series) 

STATE OF TENNESSEE-STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
GEORGE H. ASHLEY, State Geologist 

IN COOPERATION WITH THE FOREST SERVICE 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE 



W. W. ASHE 

Forest Assistant, Forest Service 




(PUBLISHERS) 

BAIRD-WARD PRINTING CO. 

Nashville, Tenn. 

JANUARY 1911 






The study upon which this report is based was undertaken 
by the State Geological Survey in cooperation with the Forest 
Service, the work being done under the direction of the Office 
of State Cooperation in the Forest Service and under the local 
instructions of the Director of the Survey. By the terms of the 
cooperation agreement the State is authorized to publish the 
findings of the investigation. 

D. of B. 
SEP 25 1916 



S 9" r 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Commercial outlook 5 

Distribution 6 

Silvical characteristics 6 

Soil and moisture requirements 6 

Temperature and light 8 

Reproduction 8 

Production of seed 8 

Seedling production 9 

Sprouting 9 

Root system 10 

Diseases and defects 10 

Forest types and associated trees,. 11 

Growth of individual trees 12 

Management _._... 14 

Protection 16 

Improvement cuttings „ 17 

Thinnings 17 

Comparative yield of thinned and unthinned stands 18 

Clean cutting and culling . 19 

Uneven -aged stands 20 

Even- aged stands 23 

Cordwood 23 

Pole ties _ 26 

Poles 30 

Saw timber 31 

Relation of board feet to cubic feet and cords 33 

Summary 34 



Chestnut in Tennessee 



COMMERCIAL OUTLOOK , 
Chestnut, because of the extensive and rapidly increasing use 
of its wood as a source of tanning material, has become one of the 
most important forest trees of Tennessee. There are now seven 
tannic extract plants in operation within the State, and all use 
chestnut wood and bark, though some use in addition, the wood 
or bark of chestnut oak. To supply these plants more than 50,000 
cords of wood are cut yearly in Tennessee with a value of about 
$187,500 at the shipping points. In addition to the extensive use 
of the wood for tannin, the census of 1909 reports 71,962,000 feet 
of chestnut lumber cut in Tennessee, with a mill value of $1,121,888. 
There were also produced 120,000 sets of heading valued at $5,520, 
and a large number of staves, t ; es, and poles valued at not less than 
$325,000. On a most conservative basis the chestnut is, therefore, 
worth $1,640,000 annually to the State. With the continued reduc- 
tion in the available supply of other native tannin materials, the 
chief of which are hemlock and chestnut oak bark, chestnut 
must become the chief remaining source of supply, and its use will 
increase. Since low grade chestnut wood and small-sized pieces, 
including the bark, can be used for tannin stock, this industry in 
connection with lumbering, permits the complete utilization of the 
tree. Chestnut has a comparatively rapid growth; it occupies ex- 
tensive areas either in pure stands or as the dominant species in 
mixed stands; it grows on land which has a comparatively low 
value for agriculture, and reproduces freely by sprouts as well as 
by seed. 'These are natural advantages which the tree offers for 
management. Further, its yield can be largely augmented by pro- 
tecting the forest from fire, and by thinning young stands; and the 
value of the forest can be additionally enhanced by systems of cut- 
ting designed to produce the most valuable class of commercial 
products. All these things combine to make the commercial man- 
agement of chestnut forests a feasible and profitable undertaking. 



6 CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 

DISTRIBUTION 

Chestnut is commercially important throughout middle and 
eastern Tennessee and as far west as Perry and Stewart Counties ; 
farther west it is comparatively unimportant. It is most abundant 
on the slopes of the Unaka and Smoky Ranges embracing the Great 
Smoky, Unaka, Stone, and Iron Mountains, and on such outlying 
ranges as the Holston, Frog, and Yellow Mountains. In many 
places in all of these mountains it forms as much as twenty-five per 
cent of the forest over tracts several thousand acres in extent. In 
the Unaka and Smoky Ranges it is locally most abundant on ele- 
vated benches of the north and west slopes and on the crests of 
northern spurs, between altitudes of 1,800 and 3,500 feet. In such 
situations it may occur pure or nearly pure over areas as large as 
100 acres. Between the Unakas and the Cumberland Plateau chest- 
nut forms less than 15 per cent of the timber. Here it is largely 
confined to hollows and north slopes, and pure stands rarely occupy 
more than a few acres. On the valley lands, irrespective of soil, 
it constitutes less than 5 per cent of the forest. It is common on 
the slopes of the Cumberland tableland, especially on the sandstone 
soils which have a sufficient depth and are not too rocky; in such 
situations it forms a large portion of the forest. Chestnut is al- 
most entirely absent, however, on the thin-soiled and stony por- 
tions of the tableland, especially near the southern end. In Clai- 
borne, Campbell, Anderson, Morgan, and Cumberland Counties it 
forms possibly 15 per cent of the timber. 

Chestnut constitutes only a small proportion of the forests of 
the Central Basin, but is one of the chief trees of the Highland Rim. 
In portions of Hickman County, which occupies a typical situation 
on the western part of the Highland R'm, 10 per cent of the forest 
aggregating several thousand acres, consists of chestnut. On the 
sandier soils of the Highland Rim chestnut comprises up to 20 per 
cent of the forest on the better sites. 

SILVICAL CHARACTERISTICS 
Soil and Moisture Requirements : 

Chestnut requires for its best growth, deep, moist loams or 
sandy loams. The soils on which it grows must be of considerable 
depth to permit the penetration of its ample, deeply ramifying 
roots, and must be moderately supplied with moisture in the sub- 
soil, but well drained on the surface. It seldom grows on clay 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. < 

soils, and practically never on limestone soils. On clay soils it 
grows only where the surface of the land is sufficiently rolling to 
insure surface drainage, and even then it forms only a small pro- 
portion of the forest growth. It makes excellent growth on highly 
ac'd soils where it is frequently associated with rhododendron (lau- 
rel) on north slopes, or with kalmia (ivy) on west slopes, but it 
also grows in pure stands. Although less exacting than yellow pop- 
lar, walnut or ash, in respect to depth of soil and amount and uni- 
formity of moisture supply, it is more exacting than white oak, by 
which it is replaced on the drier soils, even where there is consid- 
erable depth. On the thoroughly drained sandy or gravelly soils 
it gives way on cool slopes to white pine, and on somewhat stiffer 
soils to scarlet oak, especially at middle elevations, and to black oak 
at lower elevations. 

While chestnut is exacting in regard to depth and porosity of 
soil, and makes moderate demands upon soil moisture, it does not 
require either a sweet or a fertile soil. Unlike poplar, basswood, 
and ash, it will grow thriftily upon sandy soils with a subsoil defi- 
cient in lime as well as potash, and in addition to its capacity for 
germinating and growing on the peaty soil of the rhadodendron 
(laurel) thickets, it does well also on soils with scant humus cover. 
In these respects it is one of the least exacting of the hardwoods. 
Of species which require a deep soil, it is intermediate between 
species like yellow poplar, ash, and walnut, which require consid- 
erable soil fertility and the less exacting white and short leaf 
pines. 

As a rule, especially at altitudes between 1,000 and 3,000 feet, 
chestnut occupies soils which are too add and sandy to be of high 
agricultural value unless limed. On the other hand, the soils within 
these altitudes which are more uniformly moist in the subsoil and 
are neutral or only slightly acid, such as are occupied by yellow 
poplar, walnut and locust, are regarded as well suited for farmmg 
purposes.- At altitudes below 1,000 feet, the soils usually occupied 
by shortleaf pine, black oak, and hickory, are also considered su- 
perior for general farming purposes, to those occupied by chestnut. 
Above 3,000 feet altitude much of the soil occupied by chestnut is re- 
garded as of good quality for pasture land, if set in redtop (herds) 
grass, which will grow on more acid soils than will clover and 
bluegrass. 



8 chestnut in tennessee. 

Temperature and Light 

Chestnut is adapted to a wide range of climatic condition?,. It 
flourishes from an altitude of less than 500 feet elevation in south- 
western Tennessee, where the average annual temperature is 59 
degrees Fahrenheit (the mean of the summer maxima 89 degrees, 
and the winter minimum seldom as low as zero), to elevations of 
more than 5,500 feet along the Smoky and Unaka Mountain ranges, 
where the average annual temperature is below 50 degrees (the 
mean of the summer maxima not more than 80 degrees, and the 
winter minimum frequently 30 degrees below zero) . Its best growth, 
however, is on moderately cool sites, such as shady slopes, coves, 
and elevated benches of the eastern mountains between 1,000 and 
3,000 feet in altitude. Here it not only attains its maximum dimen- 
sions, but is numerically more abundant, occupying large areas to 
the practical exclusion of other species. Rainfall has but little ef- 
fect on its distribution, since Tennessee has a rainfall which is sel- 
dom below 40 inches a year, with an equable seasonal distribution. 

Reproduction 

For seedling reproduction, chestnut requires only a limited 
amount of light. The seedlings will persist for many years under 
the shade of old trees, and when twenty to thirty years old may 
not exceed 15 feet in height and 3 inches in diameter. As a rule, 
when the large trees which are overtopping these suppressed seed- 
lings are cut, the seedlings respond quickly to the increased light 
and make accelerated growth. If suppressed for a great many 
years, however, the seedlings either die or lose their power of rap- 
idly recuperating when eventually favored by more light. Even 
though they continue to live, they ultimately develop into slow- 
growmg specimens similar to the large trees which form the pres- 
ent old forest. Although sprouts will grow for a few years under 
poor light, they ultimately require more light than seedlings, and 
their best development can take place only under full light. When 
single scattered trees are cut in a stand of normal density there is 
frequently insufficient light for the sprouts, which die after a few 
years. 

Production of Seed. — Chestnut bears seed or mast abundantly 
at intervals of a few years. In intervening years the seed crop is 
lighter, but seldom entirely wanting. The flowers appear in mid- 
summer, too late to be killed by frost, but rainy weather, during 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. » 

the pollination period, may prevent the setting of the fruit and 
curtail the crop of nuts. A heavy mast year is usually followed 
by one of small mast. Even though large quantities of nuts are 
collected for sale, enough are left on the ground to insure abundant 
reproduction; these, however, are often eaten by hogs, or burned, 
and small seedlings t^at may get started are destroyed by fires and 
by cattle. 

Seedling Reproduction. — The sprouting capacity of chestnut is 
much more important to its regeneration than its ability to repro- 
duce by seed. Sprouts can be relied upon for reproduction in pure 
stands or in large groups, or when chestnut is in mixture with 
other sprout species and is managed on a short rotation. It is nec- 
essary, however, to supplement sprouts with seedlings in order to 
make up for those stumps, whose sprouting power has ceased. 
Where large timber is desired, as when chestnut is to be grown 
with oak or poplar for lumber purposes, seedlings are more de- 
sirable than sprouts. One-half to two-thirds of full light is most 
favorable to germination. If the nuts are too exposed they may 
dry out in the spring before the young root is thoroughly fixed in 
the soil. It is desirable that nuts lying on the ground in the forest 
be lightly covered during the winter, not only to keep the kernel 
moist and in condition to germinate, but to bring it in direct con- 
tact with the soil to facilitate rooting. To accomplish this the nuts 
might be planted or lumbering operations carried on during a sea- 
son which promises a good mast year; or pigs might be turned in 
temporarily before the nuts fall. Under ordinary conditions, when 
nuts are collected for market, the leaves and litter are sufficiently 
disturbed by the nut gatherers to cover a large number of nuts; 
and many seedlings are thus assured, unless the nuts left are sub- 
sequently destroyed by swine, or the seedlings killed by fire. 

Sprouting. — Most vigorous sprouting is obtained from stumps 
of trees cut in spring, early summer, or late in winter; least vig- 
orous sprouting is secured from trees cut during August and Sep- 
tember. Most sprouts appear either immediately at the root collar 
or just above the ground, and as a rule from partially independent 
root systems. It is exceptional for sprouts to develop near the 
tops of stumps. Such sprouts seldom make large and thrifty trees, 
and since they cannot form an independent root system, they fre- 
quently breek from the parent stump as they become large and the 
stump is weakened by decay. Chestnut does not sucker. 



10 CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 

The sprouting capacity of chestnut is far superior to that of 
any other important hardwood growing in Tennessee, and it is ex- 
ceptional when an unburned stump fails to sprout. On the north 
slope of Roan Mountain, above Burbank, at an altitude of about 
3,000 feet, 99 per cent of stumps of trees 3 to 5 feet in diameter, 
and varying in age from 150 to 300 years, sprouted, and the sprouts 
from most of the stumps were both numerous and vigorous. In 
such a situation chestnut is probably at its best. Several vigorous 
stands were seen which were composed of the second set of stump 
sprouts. Stumps should be cut low and obliquely, and the fertility 
of the soil maintained by preserving the humus. Where this is 
done and the trees are protected from fire, it is probable that many 
successions of sprouts can be grown from the same roots before 
their vigor is exhausted or even seriously impaired. The period 
of sustained vigor depends on the age at which the successive crops 
of sprouts are cut, and, to some extent, upon the season of the year. 

Root System 

The chestnut seedling has a central tap-root and long lateral, 
fibrous roots and rootlets. Early in life this tap-root divides into 
many vertical roots, above which are numerous widely ramifying 
laterals that lie from 6 to 8 inches below the surface of the ground. 
In mature trees the roots frequently descend to a depth of 4 or 5 
feet. Such a root system firmly anchors the tree and renders it 
extremely wind-firm. 

Diseases and Defects. — Until past the pole stage, chestnut suffers 
severely from fire because of its thin bark. Sprout trees not only 
have thinner bark, but are likely to be injured through the burn- 
ing of the old stumps. Since the sprout stands are those left after 
lumbering, they have been frequently burned, and the trees are 
either hollow or defective at the base, although the fire scars may 
have healed over so that there is no external mark. 

In addition to plainly evident physical defects, the exposure of 
wood following the killing of the bark by fire affords an entrance 
to destructive insects. The most important of these are the chest- 
nut timber worm* and the two-lined chestnut borer.** The chest- 



* For information on the chestnut timber worm, see Circular 126 of the 
United States Bureau of Entomology, "Insect Injuries to the Wood of Living 
Trees," by A. D. Hopkins. 

** For information on the two-lined chestnut borer, see "Injuries to For- 
est Trees by Flat-Headed Borers," by H. E. Burke, Yearbook, United States 
Department of Agriculture, 1909. 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 11 

nut timber worm causes the common defect known as "wormy 
chestnut," a defect which greatly reduces the value of much other- 
wise high grade timber. The two-lined borer kills living trees by 
girdling them by mining beneath the bark. This pest causes the 
death of many trees, sound ones as well as those injured by fire. 

For many years the chestnut on the lower mountains in the 
southeastern portion of the State has been dying out, a few trees 
at a time. Examples of this were noted on the English. Mountains, 
Gray Knobs, Chilhowie Mountain, Stars, Bear, Frog, and Red 
Mountains. Some of these are killed by the two-lined chestnut 
borer, but while this decline is in part due to the ravages of the 
borer, it seems to be due more to excessive burning and to the 
consequent destruction of humus and impoverishment of the soil. 
Trees in hollows, on cool north slopes and on land where a moder- 
ately dense shade and soil cover exist have not been affected. The 
remedy for the trouble would seem to be to stop fires, to permit 
humus to accumulate, and to let the young timber grow up thick 
enough to shade the soil. The dying off of the trees is certainly 
not due to the chestnut bark disease (diaporthe parasitica), a very 
destructive parasitic malady from Virginia to Southern New Eng- 
land, no evidence of which was seen in Tennessee. 

Chestnut is seldom thrown by the wind, and the stem rarely 
breaks unless hollowed at the base by fire. The leaders are some- 
times broken by sleet and icestorms, and large branches torn away 
by windstorms. 

Forest Types and Associated Trees 

Chestnut enters largely into the composition of five well-marked 
forest types: 

(1) Pure chestnut type with less than one-third of other 
species. 

(2) Lower cove type, with yellow poplar, oaks, basswood (or 
linn), ash-and locust. 

(3) Upper cove type, with hemlock, birch, hard maple, beech, 
ash, and basswood. 

(4) Chestnut oak and chestnut type, frequently with scrub 
pine. 

(5) Mixed oak and chestnut type, frequently with yellow pine 
and sourwood. 



12 CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 

Of these five, two are cove types, the upper and lower coves ; 
one, pure chestnut, is a north slope type ; and two are ridge or south 
slope types. These topographic divisions are arbitrary and can be 
applied only roughly, since topography is but one factor influencing 
drainage, depth of soil, and temperature, and, consequently, the 
distribution and local abundance of chestnut. On the north and 
west slopes chestnut is at its optimum. The upper cove marks the 
minimum temperature it will endure; in the chestnut oak type it 
reaches its limit so far as shallowness of soil is concerned, while 
in the mixed oak type it approaches its minimum limits of soil 
moisture and compactness of soil. 

The proportion of chestnut in the mixed types may amount to 
as much as 65 per cent or as little as 15 per cent, depending upon 
conditions of soil, drainage, or climate. In each type, chestnut 
has a different rate of growth, and the system of cutting must be 
modified for each to obtain the maximum returns and leave the 
forest in the best shape for growth and for future cuttings. 

Growth of Individual Trees 

The growth and yield of chestnut vary greatly according to the 
situation. Three qualities of situation have been recognized : The 
first includes the lower cove type and that part of the pure chest- 
nut type, where, on the lower slopes, there are the most rapid-grow- 
ing stands ; the second, or average quality includes the greater por- 
tion of the pure chestnut type and some of the stands in both the 
chestnut oak and chestnut type, and the upper cove type; the third, 
or poorest quality, includes the mixed oak and chestnut type, and 
the greater portion of the chestnut oak and chestnut type. 

Table 1 shows the rate of height growth of the dominant or 
tallest trees in stands of sprout chestnut for each of these three 
classes. 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 



13 



Table No. 1: Growth' in height of dominant trees in sprout 
chestnut stands, based on 117 plats on different sites. 



First Quality. 



Second Quality. 



Third Quality. 



6 o> 



0) CD 

d 



5 ^ 



W) 53 



.2? * 

"S ^ 



5 "5? 



d •« 

jg d •& 

* I *> 
P t-i d 



O 





Feet. 








Feet. 


Feet 


5 


18 




15 




12 




in 


33 


33 


27 


27 


22 


22 


15 


45 




37 




30 


.. 


20 


55 


22 


45 


18 


36 


14 


25 


64 




52 




41 




30 


71 


16 


58 


1? 


46 


10 


35 


78 




63 




49 


.. 


40 


84 


13 


68 


10 


52 


6 


45 


88 




71 




55 




50 


92 


8 


75 


7 


57 


5 


55 


96 




77 




59 




60 


98 


6 


80 


5 


61 


4 


65 


101 




82 




63 




70 


103 


5 


84 


4 


64 


3 


75 


105 




85 




65 




80 


107 


4 


87 


3 


66 | 


2 



As the table shows, the rate of height growth decreases rapidly 
as the trees become older. In all qualities more than one-half of the 
total height growth of dominant trees is made by the twentieth year. 
The rate of height growth decreases to less than one foot a year 
by the forty-fifth year in first quality stands; by the fortieth year 
in second quality stands, and by the thirtieth year in those of third 
quality. Beyond the seventieth year in all qualities the annual 
height growth is inconsiderable. In most trees the length of the 
stem has been definitely fixed before the sixtieth year by its divis- 
ion into branches. Its clear length at this age varies in dominant 
trees from about 60 feet in first quality stands to 45 feet in third 
quality. Although the tress continue to grow slowly in height as 
long as they are alive, the clear length can extend only by the loss 
of lower branches. 

Table 2 shows the growth in diameter of trees of each of 
the three classes in unthinned, even-aged stands. 



14 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 



Table 2: Growth in diameter of sprout chestnut stands; time 
required to grow one inch in diameter. Based on 117 sample plots. 



Quality I. 



Quality II. 



Quality III. 



u 




T_l i 




1—1 d) 




^ i 




1.1 




ll 




►'1 


& 




f-l rrt 








b£ w 


u 




~ S3 




a 




-. S3 


<D 


| 


o «K 




o >S 




O .H 


+J 




->-> 




-»-> 




•*-) 


<D X 


1 


& 


l 


■^ l 


l 


.G 




3 ; 


<D V U 


1 


S S & 




<D o t-i 


bJD , 




a> 
M 


03 

bfi 


S.H2 


3 


«i | 


H 


<J 


Eh 


«! 


£ 



Inches 


Years 


Years 


Years 


Years 


Years 


Years 


10 


26 




33 


• • 


40 




11 


31 


5 


39 


6 


48 


8 


12 


36 


5 


46 


7 


59 


11 


13 


41 


5 


53 


7 


76 


16 


14 


47 


6 


61 


8 






15 


53 


6 


71 


10 






16 


59 


6 


83 


12 






17 


66 


7 










18 


73 


7 










19 


81 


8 




•• 







The rate of diameter growth decreases uninterruptedly after the 
first few decades. In stands of the first quality during the first 
decade it takes only three years to grow an inch; by the fiftieth 
year it takes six years. 

Management. 

By the management of a forest is meant the use of a definite 
system of protection and cutting which seeks to perpetuate it and 
to increase its productive value. Protection may consist in prevent- 
ing fires and overgrazing, controlling insect attacks or sparing the 
young growth during lumbering. A stand may be perpetuated by 
cutting so as to obtain sprouts or seedlings; it may be cut at a 
period to develop its maximum yield; it may be thinned to accel- 
erate its growth, or to produce material most suitable for special 
uses. The same methods of management are not applicable to all 
conditions. 

Chestnut is a large component of several mixed types of 
forest, although it also forms pure stands. It is found in exten- 
sive even-aged stands of second growth, as well as in uneven- 
aged, old forests; it has a slow rate of growth on poor soils, and 
on better situations its growth is rapid. Some of it is still quite 
inaccessible, so that only the large timber is merchantable; other 
stands are close to market, which makes possible a much more 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 15 

complete utilization. The wood is extensively cut for special uses. 
Under such a great variety of conditions it is impossible to apply a 
uniform system of management, and a special system must be de- 
veloped for each class of forest, if the best results are to be ob- 
tained. 

The important classes of chestnut forests in Tennessee are : 

(1) Uneven-aged stands, consisting mainly of old timber, in 
which large-sized, overmature, and defective trees often predomi- 
nate. Most of the old timber is in mixed stands, though there are 
some pure stands. 

(2) Even-aged, second-growth stands, either pure or mixed. 
These classes can again be classified according to accessibility; 

some tracts are near railroads, or connected with farms, or other- 
wise so situated that close utilization and intensive management is 
possible; others are distant from shipping points, or cover large 
areas of rough land, where close utilization at present is not pos- 
sible. 

Forest management of the chestnut in the forests of Tennessee 
should aim : 

(1) To foster chestnut and pine in the mixed stands on the 
poorer sites at the expense of the slower-growing chestnut oak and 
white oak. 

(2) To get more seedlings Of ash, poplar, and red oak in the 
mixed stands in the hollows, since these species sprout only spar- 
ingly, while chestnut will do so abundantly. White pine, also, should 
be encouraged where it is present. Seedling reproduction of chest- 
nut should be encouraged in the hollows, since seedlings make larger 
trees than sprouts do. 

(3) To maintain on chestnut soils pure sprout stands of chest- 
nut reinforced by seedlings of this species, together with chestnut 
oak and red oak. 

This scheme is based on the supposition that the destructive 
chestnut bark disease will not reach Tennessee. In the event that 
it does, cutt'ngs should be made so as to increase the amount of 
white pine and poplar in the cove type, and the amount of pine on 
chestnut lands having southern exposures. If the pure chestnut 
forests are destroyed by this disease, it will be necessary either- to 
plant other species in order to re-establish remunerative forests, or 
to rely on the slower means of natural reforestation to establish a 
new growth of other species. 



16 chestnut in tennessee. 

Protection. 

Young chestnut is so subject to fire damage that it is of first 
importance to protect young stands. Old timber with thicker bark 
is less injured, though it cannot be burned without some injury- 
While the protection of large tracts is difficult and costly, thick 
stands and heavy yields of sound timber cannot be obtained unless 
fires are prevented. There is a striking contrast in the condition 
of the young timber on repeatedly burned coaled-over land, and 
the same class of timber in farmers' woodlots which have had few, 
or no fires. The yield of the burned stands is seldom two-thirds 
that of protected stands, and the timber is of inferior quality. 

Posting the forest fire laws of the State, co-operation with ad- 
joining land owners, and regulating of nut gathering and grazing, 
all these will help to solve the fire problem. Assistance in fighting 
fires should be required for the privilege of gathering nuts or pas- 
turing cattle. On large tracts it is possible to maintain a patrol, 
but it is seldom practicable to establish cleared fire lines. A patrol 
would undoubtedly be the best manner of protecting recently cut- 
over land and young timber. Fire guards would be required only 
during the dry and windy weather, at which times arrangements 
should be made for securing help promptly when needed. Small 
tracts, particularly those connected with farms, are more easily 
protected. Fires are discovered earlier, before they have made 
great headway, and as a rule assistance for fighting them can more 
readily be secured. In fighting fire, young timber should be given 
first consideration, since it is more easily damaged. When clean 
cutting or heavy culling is practiced, especially summer cutting, it 
may be necessary to pile and burn slash. This may not be neces- 
sary after moderate culling, especially if the trees are not in foliage, 
or if the tops are closely utilized for extract wood. As a rule it is 
desirable if hemlock or pine are mixed with chestnut and are 
cut with it. 

Land in process of restockmg either by sprouts or seedlings 
should never be pastured. After it is restocked and the top shoots 
of the young trees have grown out of reach of stock, limited pas- 
turage can be permitted as in old stands. In any case, the num- 
ber of cattle grazed should be carefully regulated s especially on 
recently cut-over land, so that no damage will result. 



chestnut in tennessee. 17 

Improvement Cuttings. 

Improvement cuttings are made for the purpose of removing 
defective trees, either old or young, and eliminating species of low 
value. The object in making them is to obtain a stand formed 
entirely of sound trees of desirable species. As a rule, they can 
be conducted without cost only where there is a market for ma- 
terial for low grade or small dhnensions, and thus they are prac- 
tically restricted to forests connected with farms or to those near 
towns, shipping points, and tannic acid extract plants. 

In old timber they should remove spreading trees which are 
overtopping vigorous thickets of young growth, and should reduce 
the number of seed-bearing trees of slow-growing or low grade 
species, such as black g'im, red maple, beech, and white oak. In 
second-growth stands they should eliminate trees of slow-growing 
species, individuals with large overtopping crowns and trees with 
very crooked or short, forked stems, or sound trees of inferior 
species should be removed. Small poplar may be cut for pulpwood, 
and chestnut, and chestnut oak for tannic acid extract works. On 
the Cumberland tableland, there is a demand for mine props; near 
towns and on farms fuel affords an excellent opportunity for dis- 
posing of the products of improvement cuttings. 

Thinnings. 

The object of thinnings is to accelerate growth. Consequently 
they are of value only to young stands in which the trees will readily 
respond to them. The smaller and less promising trees, even of 
chestnut and other desirable species, as well as those of undesirable 
spec'es, are removed in successive cuttings, leaving a smaller num- 
ber of very vigorous, well-spaced stems from which are selected the 
trees that are to form the ultimate mature stand. All cuttings are 
for the benefit of these select trees, and are made at frequent inter- 
vals to prevent any check in their rate of growth. The prolonged 
struggle between competing trees is thus prevented by greatly 
reducing 'the number of stems per acre. The individual trees of 
the mature thinned stand are probably no taller than those in un- 
thinned stands, but they have so much larger diameters that the 
yield of merchantable timber is greatly augmented. 

Thinnings should begin between the fifteenth and thirtieth year, 
according to the rapidity of growth, size of trees, and density of 
the stand. Sprout stands, because of their more vigorous growth 



18 CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 

dur ng the first few decades, can be thinned earlier than seedling 
stands. The interval between thinnings should vary from five to 
ten years, depending upon the rate of growth of the trees and the 
rap : d ; ty with which the crown cover becomes filled. . As a rule, fre- 
quent light thinnings give better results than heavy ones at long 
intervals. Trees should be removed evenly through the stand, and 
large clusters of sprouts should be well thinned. By repeating the 
thinnings it is possible to maintain practically the same rate of 
diameter increase for a long period and to prevent the progressive 
decline which takes place in close, unthinned stands. (Table 2). 

Thinnings are seldom profitable unless the wood that is removed 
can be used, or can be sold for enough to cover the cost. Early 
thinnmgs will yield only small wood suitable for fence post's or 
cordwood. Later thinnings will yield some ties and poles, partic- 
ularly when the stand is being held for large sized sawtimber. 

In order to cut trees to best advantage into hewn ties or into 
poles, it is necessary to maintain sufficient crowding to prevent the 
stems from being too tapering and to cut before the butts become 
too large. In the production of sawtimber it is desirable to obtain 
the largest diameters. For this reason thinnings to accelerate 
diameter growth become of even greater importance in providing 
sawtimber than in stands intended for poles and hewn ties. Thin- 
nings should begin earlier and should be heavier than in stands 
managed for ties and poles. 

It is often advisable to thin the sprouts around large stumps. 
Th ; s can be done during the first winter by breaking off the smaller 
ones, and leaving vigorous sprouts about one foot apart around the 
stump. 

Comparative Yield of Thinned and Unthinned Stands — A com- 
parison of the thinned and unthinned plots in Table 3 shows the 
actual results in increasing the merchantable volume of stands even 
by a thinning which was unsystematic. Had the thinning been 
systematic, the yield would undoubtedly have been higher, and if 
these two thinned stands had been removed in two cuttings, made 
at intervals of from 10 to 15 years, it is probable that their yield 
could have been increased to 25,000 board feet-, or that more than 
700 sawed ties 7x7 inches and 8 feet long could have been obtained 
per acre. 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 



19 



Table 3 : Number of trees and yield in lumber or ties per acre, 
of unthinned and thinned stands in similar situations. 



Unthinned Stands. 



Years 
47 
59 



Thinned Stands. 



Yield Per Acre. 





o 


01 








T-l 




















•a 


O <D 


1 









o 


0) 


| 


1 

be 


8-g 

a; c 


S 

S3 


1 
0) 


< 


fH 


H 


J 


H 



Years 


No. 


No. 


Bd. feet 


Number . . . 


45 


220 


110 


4,220 


158 


56 


184 


116 


7,980 


178 



Yield Per Acre. 





O 


M 








rH 


0> 










a 








■o 


•- ' u 










o > 
rH O 


1 

u 




1 


w -g 


CD c3 




| 


0> 


11 a 


s 


xn 


0JD 


Sh 


in 


3 




< 


H 


H 


-) 


H 



No 
84 
52 



No. 
148 
132 



Bd. feet 
18,800 

18,728 



Number 

555 

553 



Clean Cutting and Culling — A comparison of even-aged, second- 
growth stands which have followed clean cutting for charcoal, with 
second-growth stands of mixed age which have followed cullings, 
shows the straightest and thriftiest timber on the areas which were 
clean cut. The competition between trees of the same height on the 
clean-cut lands is mutually beneficial, resulting in long, straight 
stems with low taper. In- the mixed-aged stands, on the other hand, 
there are many trees with short, crooked stems and long, wide- 
spreading crowns, the result of a long period of suppression. 

While clean cutting is by no means possible at the present time 
in the great majority of lumbering operations, it is the ideal method 
of cutting chestnut, and should be approximated whenever the mar- 
ket will justify it, and when the cut-over land can be protected from 
fire. When the land has not been grazed and there have been no 
fires there will invariably be found beneath the old trees an abund- 
ance of small seedling chestnuts. This will often obviate the neces- 



20 CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 

sity of leaving seed trees of this species in those places where it is 
necessary to restock with seedlings. 

Culling consists in cutting the larger trees and leaving the 
smaller ones to grow. Its practice is based on the theory that small 
trees growing near or beneath large trees will recuperate after the 
cutting of the larger trees and make accelerated growth. This is 
by no means invariably the case, and when such small trees have 
passed through a protected period of suppression their rate of 
growth is permanently impaired. If suppression is not of too long 
duration — more than 35 years — and if the trees are growing in 
good soil, they will recover. Their rate of height growth, however, 
will not be so rapid and their rate of diameter growth will seldom 
equal that of trees which have grown thriftily from the first. Cull- 
ing must be relied upon chiefly in cutting forests which can not be 
thinned, and where there is no market for small wood. It enables 
moderate cuttings of large timber to be made at comparatively 
short intervals — 15 to 25 years — but it fails to develop the max- 
imum increment. It is suited particularly to seedling stands, since 
the partial light is unfavorable for the growth of sprouts, but very 
favorable for the early growth of seedlings. It is the method which 
must be used in managing a great portion of the mountain forests 
of large and old chestnut which are cut to a diameter limit. It is 
desirable to fix a diameter limit, but this, however, should not 
always be closely adhered to. In some cases it should be used in the 
nature of a general guide to the cutting limit. Where only saw- 
timber can be taken, and many large, unsound trees are left, a diam- 
eter limit for chestnut of 18 inches is not too high. When poles and 
ties can be cut the limit can be lowered to 14 inches. 

Uneven-Aged Stands. 

The situation of a forest in reference to transportation facilities, 
the possibility of close utilization, and the rapidity of growth deter- 
mine the method of management and consequently the character of 
the cutting. 

Tracts so inaccessible that there is no present or prospective 
market for small material should be managed primarily for saw- 
timber, which can stand a higher cost of logging and transporta- 
tion. In cutting old timber on tracts which are to be managed pri- 
marily for sawtimber, the trees should be cut to a diameter of not 
less than 18 inches breast high on good sites and 14 inches on poor 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 21 

sites. But even in cutting to such limits considerable discretion 
should be used. A thrifty young, smooth-barked tree, with a long, 
straight stem, might well be held over for the second cutting, even 
if as large as 20 inches in diameter, since such a tree would un- 
doubtedly be making a rapid growth. Cn the other hand, trees 
below these diameters, if short-bodied, crooked, and defective, or 
trees which are shading a thrifty group of young saplings, or crowd- 
ing a group of poles, might well be cut, even if the profit in cutting 
them is very small. Thrifty young trees, the cutting of which would 
yield only a small profit, should be left if the cost of logging is low 
enough to permit it. 

The utilization of large, old timber should be as clean as possi- 
ble, but it will be impossible to use many of the old trees which are 
too defective for sawtimber. These can be left, since they will not 
only serve as seed trees, but may eventually be used for tannic 
extract stock. In localities where the market is better and where 
posts, ties, and extract stock can be sold, even if the local transpor- 
tation must be clone by flume or road, the forest can be left in much 
better condition for future earning value. It will be possible to cut 
out most of the old, defective trees and convert the seedling stand 
into a sprout stand, which will have a greater capacity for growth. 
Seedling chestnuts eight inches or less in diameter should not -be 
cut, however, but should be left to replace exhausted stock at the 
second cutting. All other species which are mixed in with groups 
of chestnut, and which can be used, should be cut at the same time 
as the chestnut in order that the chestnut sprouts may have full 
light for their growth. When there is a market for poplar or pine 
pulpwood, seed trees of these species should be left, since they make 
a good mixture with the chestnut. Red maple and black gum, if 
taken for paper stock, should be cut to the smallest merchantable 
diameter. Seed trees of chestnut oak and red oak can be left, but 
Spanish oak and white oak should be cut to smallest merchantable 
size. 

Timber which has a rate of growth as slow, or slower than that 
on second-quality sites, should be managed so as to secure even-aged 
sprout stands. This would apply not only to much of the timber on 
the south slopes, ridges, and upper north slopes of mountains in the 
eastern part of the State and the Cumberland plateau, but to chest- 
nut stands as far west as Stewart and Hickman counties. The 
chestnut on poor sites is largely associated with chestnut oak, which 



22 CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 

is also a vigorous sprouting species. The poorer the site, the less 
is the difference in the rate of growth between chestnut and chest- 
nut oak, since chestnut oak is less affected by a poor condition than 
is chestnut. Managed as sprout forests, these sites can produce 
timber large enough for extract stock in a comparatively short 
time, while many trees will become large enough for ties and a 
few for poles. On the Cumberland tableland, where mine props 
are used, much of the small timber can be cut for this purpose. The 
production of larger timber for sawlogs is not advisable, since the 
growth of the trees becomes too slow after reaching a diameter 
of 14 to 16 inches. Stands should be cut close, but seedling chestnut 
8 inches or less in diameter should be left in a first cutting in order 
that they may replace exhausted stumps and become old enough to 
seed. Seed trees of red oak, chestnut oak, and yellow pine should 
also be left. 

When there is no market for tannic extract stock the timber on 
the ridges should be managed for tie production in sprout stands. 
It should be managed as seedling stands for sawtimber only where 
there is no possibility of marketing smaller material which can be 
grown from sprouts. 

In slopes and hollows the rate of growth is usually equal to, or 
better than that on second-quality sites. On tracts at a distance 
from shipping points, chestnut should be managed only for saw- 
timber, poles, or t ; es, and old timber should be cut in the same 
general manner as on the ridges. Seedling reproduction should be 
encourage:!. The old trees should be cut, as nearly as market con- 
ditions will permit to a minimum diameter of 20 inches for sawtim- 
ber, but to 14 inches for ties. All crooked and defective trees which 
can be used should be cut. As the quality of the soil improves, chest- 
nut becomes relatively less valuable than some other species, such 
as popular and white pine, and these should be favored so as to have 
a mixed stand of chestnut and these species. 

Near shipping points poles are relatively more valuable than 
sawtimber, and where there is a certain market for poles old tim- 
ber should be cut to a diameter of 14 inches, and sprout reproduc- 
tion, supplemented by seedlings, encouraged. However, it is always 
adv'sable to reserve a few large trees of poplar, white pine, red 
oak or ash. 



chestnut in tennessee. 23 

Even-Aged Stands. 

There are in Tennessee probably more than 100,000 acres of 
even-aged, second-growth chestnut, either in pure stands or where 
chestnut forms more than one-half of the stand. These are largely 
sprout forests on old "coalings," which were made to supply char- 
coal with which to operate forges, furnaces, or smelters. A small 
number of these stands are in "deadenings," which were never cul- 
tivated or were cultivated only a few years. Few of them have 
resulted from lumberings, but as closer utilization becomes possible, 
lumbering will approximate clean cutting and even-aged stands of 
young growth will largely replace the uneven-aged forest. While 
these even-aged sprout stands give high yields of straight, clean- 
bodied timber, there is one drawback in their management' which 
cannot be overlooked; that in order to obtain vigorous sprouts it is 
necessary to cut at the inconvenient seasons of winter, spring, or 
early summer. If the stumps are cut in autumn many will fail to 
sprout, and early summer cutting is also objectionable, because the 
bark from which the sprouts arise is easily separated from the 
stump, and is likely to be torn off during the lumbering operations. 

In the management of even-aged stands yield tables, which show 
the amount of wood that can be cut at different ages, are necessary. 
Their chief value is to indicate the age at which stands that have 
different rates of growth may reach the period of maximum growth, 
or maturity, and should be cut. It is necessary to determine this 
age for each product into which the timber can be converted, since 
the age of maturity varies for various products. Yield tables can 
also be used for estimating the quantities of material which can be 
expected from the second-growth stands which will follow after the 
old timber is cut. In using yield tables to make such forecasts, 
however, it is necessary to make proper allowance when the mixture 
of other species differs from that allowed in the yield tables. 

Under present conditions yield tables of this character can sel- 
dom be used in timber estimating, since they are constructed for 
dense, second-growth stands which have been uninjured by fire or 
cattle, and are applicable only to such conditions. The yield of 
most second-growth stands is much below that of the tables. The 
tables, however, serve to indicate the large yields which can be 
obtained by protecting clean-cut land and securing dense, even-aged 
stands. 

Cordwood — Chestnut cordwood is chiefly used for tannic acid 



24 CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 

extract stock, while a relatively small amount is used for fuel. Con- 
sequently the dimensions for wood used in constructing the cord- 
wood yield tables conform to the manufacturers' specifications for 
the tannic acid extract wood. The wood in Tennessee is used with 
the bark attached. Split-stem wood is most desired, but a small 
proportion of round wood is taken to a diameter of three inches if 
straight and free from large knots. This permits the use of much 
branch wood and the cutting of trees as small as five inches in 
diameter. Wood with large knots, as from the crowns of old trees, 
is rejected by the manufacturers. If trees less than 25 inches in 
diameter are well handled the tops can be completely worked up, 
except for the crooked parts of the limbs and the portions having 
a diameter less than 3 inches. 

Table 4 gives the yield in long cords (160 cu. ft.) per acre of 
chestnut stands at different ages, and of different qualities of 
growth. In the second column under each quality is given the 
growth in cords during each decade. The maximum growth in the 
first quality site takes place during the fifth decade ; in the second 
and third during the sixth decade. 

The first and second quality stands contain about 10 per cent 
of the species other than chestnut, and the third about 15 per cent, 
which is not included in the tables. In the first and second qualities 
the associated species are chiefly yellow poplar, red oak and white 
pine. In the third it is largely chestnut oak, the wood of which to 
a limited extent is also used for extract stock. 

Table 4 — Yield of long cords per acre in wood and bark of pure 
stands of chestnut at various ages on different quality sites. Trees 
taken to a minimum diameter of 5 inches, and split as required in 
specifications for tannic extract wood. 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 



25 



First Quality. 



Second Quality. 



Third Quality. 






— i o 
CO 03 



CD 
bO 03 

.5 Q) 
Fh ^ 

j- CD 



o 



be cj 



-a 
.c CD 



O 



01 

.£, CO 
Fh T3 

rt CO 



LONG CORDS. 



15 


3.8 




1.0 






•• 




20 


7.9 


7.0 


3.9 


3.5 








25 


12.6 




7.6 




3.3 






30 


18.4 


10.5 


12.0 


8.1 


6.1 


6 





S5 


25.3 




17.1 




9.1 






40 


33.1 


14.7 


22.7 


10.7 


12.3 


6 


2 


45 


45.1 




28.9 




15.6 






50 


58.4 


25.3 


36.0 


13.3 


19.2 


6 


9 


55 


70.2 




43.6 




22.8 






60 


78.3 


19.9 


50.4 


14.4 


26.7 


7 


5 


65 


83.1 




55.5 




30.8 






70 


86.8 


8.5 


59.8 


9.4 


31.6 


4 


9 



Table 5 gives the average annual growth in long cords per acre 
for stands on different quality sites at various ages. In stands of 
the first quality the average annual yield of tannic acid cordwood 
is greatest about the sixtieth year; in those of the second and third 
qualities, the average annual yield is greatest about the sixty-fifth 
year. Since the average annual yield is less, both before and after 
these ages, they represent maturity for cordwood stands, which 
therefore should be cut at 60 or 65 years, according to site. 

Table 5 — Average annual yield in long cords per acre of pure 
stands of chestnut at various ages on different quality sites. 





YIELD 




Age of Stand, 


First Quality. Second Quality. 


Third Quality. 


Years. 


LONG CORDS. 




20 


0.4 0.2 




25 • 


0.5 0.3 




30 


0.6 0.4 


0.2 


35 


0.7 0.55 


0.3 


40 


0.8 0.65 


0.3 


45 


1.0 0.6 


0.3 


50 


1.2 0.7 


0.4 


55 


1.3 0.8 


0.4 


60 


1.3 0.84 


0.4 


65 


1.3 0.85 


0.47 


70 


1.2 0.85 


0.45 



26 CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 

Cordwood stands should be cut clean, except for seedlings or 
seedling sprouts of sapling size, which can form a part of the suc- 
ceeding crop. The best quality sites can probably be utilized more 
profitably for growing larger timber for ties, poles, and sawlogs. 
The poorer sites can be most advantageously used for cordwood on 
account of the generally poor growing conditions. 

Mixed stands which contain only a small proportion of chestnut 
cannot be profitably managed exclusively for extract cordwood, 
unless other species can be cut simultaneously with the chestnut 
for cordwood, or unless the chestnut occurs in large, pure groups 
scattered through the forest. This would apply to the larger por- 
tion of the mixed oak and chestnut forest of the Highland Rim and 
farther west. If single, scattered trees of chestnut are cut in such 
mixed stands there will frequently be insufficient light for the 
growth of the sprouts, and this would ultimately result in a great 
decrease in the proportion of chestnut in the forest. 

Many second-growth stands on good soils contain a variable pro- 
portion of yellow poplar, ash, white pine, and red oak, which are 
too small to be very valuable for sawtimber at the age when chestnut 
is best suited for cordwood, or even for ties or poles. Well-formed 
trees of these species, particularly the ones with slender stems, 
might be left. They would interfere very little with the reproduction 
of the chestnut sprouts, and would increase rapidly in diameter. 
They would make extremely large and valuable sawlogs by the time 
the next stand of chestnut sprouts was ready to be cut. 

Pole Ties — At the present time chestnut ties are not cut exten- 
sively in Tennessee, oak timber suitable for ties being still abundant 
and comparatively cheap. The use of chestnut ties, however, is 
increasing so rapidly that chestnut can be regarded as a standard tie 
wood in Tennessee, as it has already become in many States farther 
north. In Eastern Tennessee chestnut is cut only into pole ties 7 by 
9 inches by 8.5 feet long. Smce the ties are hewed and the logs are 
rarely split, there is considerable waste in the larger logs from the 
lower part of trees more than 16 inches in diameter. There is also 
a large waste in small trees in the unused length of stem in the top. 
(See Table 6.) A 7 by 9-inch tie, 8.5 feet long, contains 3.7 cubic 
feet of solid wood if it is sawed. The hewed ties contain more 
wood than, this, probably as much as 4.5 cubic feet, on an average. 
Trees which yield ties with the least waste are those from 14 to 16 
inches in diameter. In trees below 13 inches, and in those above 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 



27 



18 inches, more than twice the volume called for in the specifica- 
tions is consumed. In trees below 15 inches in diameter the waste 
largely lies in the unused upper length of the stem ; in trees above 
16 inches, the waste is in the diameter in excess of that called for 
in the specifications. 

Table 6 — Cubic contents of trees of various diameters, cut to a 
4-inch top diameter, average number of ties per tree, and average 
waste in clear length. 



S he 



M 

« cb 

t-> a) 

> -^ 
< 



03 -O .C 

a u 2 

-2 ^ ^ 

£ a> 

o _, o 

o a s 

*-> c 

■— i CO s- 

S3 q- 



_ « 



— CO 



5 S 



inches 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 



cubic ft. 
9.60 
12.3 
16.8 
22.6 
28.4 
35.0 
38.0 
43.9 
49.3 
56.8 
63.9 



No. 


Cubic ft 


1.0 


9.6 


1.4 


8.8 


2.1 


8.0 


3.1 


7.3 


4.0 


7.1 


5.0 


7.0 


5.5 


6.9 


6.1 


7.2 


6.4 


7.7 


6.6 


8.6 


6.8 


9.4 



ft. 

41 
42 
44 
47 
50 
56 
57 
60 
61 
61 
61 



feet 

32 

30 

26 

20 

16 

13 

10 

8 

6 

4 

3 



Note — *Specifications require four cubic feet. 



Table 7 gives the number of pole ties 8.5 feet long by 7 by 9 
inches wide, which can be cut from trees of different heights and 
diameters. The number of oak and locust ties in trees of different 
diameters are shown in the last column. Both the oak and locust 
yield fewer ties than chestnut from trees of the same diameter on 
account of their thicker bark and shorter, more crooked, and more 
tapering stems. The proportion of oak and locust ties in the stands 
is less than 33 per cent. 

Table 7 — Tie volume table, giving average number of pole ties 
(8.5 feet long by 7 by 9 inches) in trees of different heights and 
diameters. 



28 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 



Chestnut. 



Oaks and 
Locust 



D. B. H., 

Inches 50 



60 



Height— Feet. 

70 I 80 ! 90 



100 



110 



All 
Heights 



10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 







Number 


of Ties Per Tree. 










0.7 


0.9 


1.1 


1.2 


1.2 


1.2 




0.8 


1.1 


1.3 


1.5 


1.7 


1.8 


1.9 


0.7 


1.3 


1.7 


2.0 


2.3 


2.5 


2.7 


2.8 


1.4 


1.8 


2.3 


2.7 


3.1 


3.5 


3.7 


3.8 


2.0 


2.3 


2.9 


3.4 


3.9 


4.3 


4.5 


4.7 


2.8 


2.7 


3.4 


4.1 


4.7 


5.1 


5.4 


5.5 


3.7 


2.7 


3.5 


4.3 


5.0 


5.6 


6.0 


6.3 


4.0 


2.8 


3.7 


4.6 


5.4 


6.0 


6.4 


6.6 


4.3 


2.8 


3.8 


4.8 


5.7 


6.3 


6.7 


6.9 


5.0 


2.9 


3.9 


4.9 


5.8 


6.5 


6.9 


7.2 


5.3 


2.9 


4.1 


5.1 


5.9 


6.6 


7.1 


7.4 


5.7 



The number of ties which can be cut from a stand increases with 
its age up to a certain limit, after which there is no additional 
increase, or only a slight one. The greatest annual yield of ties 
from a first quality site is obtained when the stand is about 60 years 
old. On second and third quality sites the maximum annual yield 
is not obtained until the stands are at least 70 years old, because of 
the longer time required for the trees to reach tie size. By cutting 
the entire stand clear, a yield of more than 600 No. 1 ties per acre 
can be obtained from 60-year-old stands of first quality; a yield of 
364 ties at the same age from stands of the second quality, and 
more than 200 ties from stands of the third quality. Table 8 gives 
the yield of pole ties which can be obtained per acre from unthinned 
stands of different qualities at different ages. While this table 
shows the yield which can reasonably be expected from one clear 
cutting of dense stands, it by no means gives the maximum yield 
which can be obtained at intervals in two or three cuttings, or from 
thinned stands. 



Table 8 — Tie yield table. Yield of pole ties per acre in un- 
thinned stands of chestnut (less than 33 per cent other species) at 
Various ages. (Pole ties 7 by 9 inches by 8.5 feet long). 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 
Quality I. Quality II. 



29 



Quality III. 









1 „ 




rt 




a 




nj 




03 • 




3 








3 • 




c 




c 




d : 




el 




c 




a . 




rt 




CS 




oi . 




QJ 




<D 




0> 


XI 


Sfc 


B 


M-C 


„ 


M-d 


73 i 


g 4 


"3 .a 


g"a 


■ai 


g-3 


%* 


► > 


S*- 


r>> ■££- 


g* 


H 


■sj 


H 


<i 


H 


<s\ 



Years. 




Number of Ties. 








25 


39 










.... 




30 


99 


3.3 


18 






' 




35 


176 




60 






9 




40 


269 


6.7 


107 




2.7 


51 


l!2 


45 


359 




167 






98 




50 


471 


9.4 


231 




4.6 


145 


2^9 


55 


565 




299 






184 




60 


619 


10.3 


364 




6.0 


217 


3.6 


65 


659 




406 






244 




70 


685 


9.8 


433 




6^2 


265 


3!9 



Unthinned second-growth stands should not be cut clean for 
ties, since the ultimate yield of ties from such a stand can be 
increased by cutting only trees which have reached a diameter 
large enough to give a high yield of ties per tree. Cutting in stands 
within easy hauling distance of a shipping point should not take 
place until the largest trees are 16 inches in diameter, breast high, 
at which time all trees of 15 and 16 inches should be removed. Cut- 
tings can be repeated at intervals of a few years, removing each 
time only the trees of these diameters. This assures an average 
yield of five ties per tree in quality 1 ; more than three in quality 
2; and nearly three in quality 3. When the third cutting is made 
it is desirable to cut clean in order to secure an approximately even- 
aged stand of sprouts. If cutting is continued for too long, not 
only is the stand converted into an uneven-aged one, but the sprouts 
from many of the chestnut stumps die on account of the shade, 
resulting in a large increase in the young stand of oak, maple, 
beech, sourwood, and other tolerant species which seed abundantly. 
While the trees removed should be as evenly distributed as their 
sizes will permit, it is desirable to retain the trees of seedling origin 
until the last cutting. In making cuttings of this kind great care 
must be exercised in the last cuttings not to break down the sprouts 
which have already appeared. 

When stands are situated at a distance from transportation 



30 CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 

facilities, and it is impossible to make several cuttings at short 
intervals, cuttings need not begin until the largest trees are 17 
inches in diameter, and all trees can be cut to a diameter of 13 
inches. This would make possible a heavy cutting and still leave 
a large number of very slender trees less than 13 inches in diameter, 
most of which would become merchantable within 15 years when 
the stand could be cut clean. 

Young forests of poles, 12 inches or less in diameter, on farms 
or near a market, should be treated as cordwood stands for extract 
wood. If correctly done, the thinnings will greatly increase the 
yield of ties over that given in Table 7, and enable most of the trees 
to be simultaneously developed to tie size. They can then be removed 
in two cuttings made at such short intervals as to amount practi- 
cally to a clean cutting. 

Poles — There is a regular market for poles in Tennessee, and 
this is one of the most profitable forms in which small chestnut tim- 
ber can be marketed. Poles are best produced in sprout stands in 
qualities one and two ; that is, in the mountain coves and on other 
soils of good quality. On the poor sites the stems of the trees are 
apt to be crooked, and have too little taper to meet pole specifica- 
tions for the larger sizes. Specifications are more easily complied 
with when the growth is very thrifty. Pole production should be 
attempted only when logging is easy and transportation by railroads 
or streams is close at hand. The cost of handling large and long 
poles is so great that inexperienced contractors frequently fail to 
make a profit in handling them. Stands intended for poles should 
be thinned in the manner described for ties. Tall, straight, and 
sound poles, many of which will have approximately the taper called 
for in the specifications of the American Telephone and Telegraph 
Company, can be grown in this way. Table 9 gives the specifica- 
tions for poles as required by this company. These are approx- 
imately the same as required by other users of poles. 

Table 9 — Specifications for poles. American Telephone and Tel- 
egraph Company. Minimum dimensions for peeled poles. 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 



31 



MINIMUM DIMENSIONS OF PEELED POLES. 





50, 60, 70 or 


Heavy 


Light 


J Light 


Branch 




80- Wire Line 


Trunk Line 
Circumf'r'nci 


Trunk Line 
Circumf'r'nc 


J Line 


Line 




Cir'cumf 'r'nc 


Circumf'r'nc 


Circumf'r'nc 




S 
o 


a 

o 


8* 
o 


om 
butt, 


as 

o 


a^ 


a2 

o 


a2 


a 

a -> 


43 


g£ 






















a o 


a s 






+J 












J 


<w « 


"-.a 






«t-i 


«H 


=t-i 


!W 


«4— 1 




<x> 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 





feet 


inchs. 


inchs . 


inchs.. 


inchs. 


inchs.. 


20 








.. 


.. 


22 












25 










20 


30 


24 


40 


22 


36 


20 


35 


24 


43 


22 


40 


20 


40 


24 


45 


22 


43 


20 


45 


24 


48 


22 


47 


20 


50 


24 


51 


22 


50 


20 


55 


22 


54 


22 


53 


20 


60 


22 


57 


22 


56 




65 


22 


60 


22 


59 




70 


22 


63 


22 


62 




75 


22 


66 


22 


65 




80 


22 


70 


22 


69 




85 


22 


73 


22 


72 




90 


22 


76 


22 


75 





inchs inchs. inchs.. inchs. inchs. 



30 
33 
36 
40 
43 
46 
49 



20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 



27 
31 
35 
39 
43 
46 



15% 

15% 

15% 

15% 

20 

20 

20 

20 



23 
24 
26 
29 
34 
38 
42 
46 



Sawtimber — Second-growth sprout stands wili seldom give any 
heavier yield of large saw timber than seedlings of the same age, 
since the rate of growth of sprouts eventually declines and becomes 
less than that of seedlings. Sprout stands are best suited to the 
production of smaller stems than those required for the best saw- 
logs. Sprout timber, however, can very well be sawed into ties, and, 
in addition to the ties, several boards can be obtained from the 
larger logs. 

Table 10 shows the yield in board feet, both on the basis of the 
Doyle-Scribner log scale and on the bas's of the actual mill cut, 
which can be obtained from stands of different qualities at different 
ages. It also gives the supplemental yield in cords of extract wood 
from tops and from trees below 10 inches in diameter, and the total 
value of the stands at different ages. These tables are based on 
132 sample plots. 

QUALITY I. 

Table 10(a) — Total yield and value of stands of chestnut in 
board feet and cords at different ages. 



32 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 









J. o » ' 
CB +- p.0 


° °T3 o 


Yield 


Per Acre of Trees 


i3c~S • 


Z~S ^ u 


10 Inches and Over 




Id of 

Dm 5 
in. an 
trees 
d ove 


* * § « 








.i to«- b 


cc-S o 5 








tH«-^C« 




Age 


Doyle-Scribner, 


Actual cut, 






Years 


Board feet 


Board feet 


Long cords 


Dollars 


25 


900 


2,000 


16.0 


20.00 


30 


2,100 


4,500 


15.3 


24.30 


35 


3.800 


7,600 


13.5 


28.70 


40 


5,800 


10,900 


12.3 


33.10 


45 


8,300 


14,900 


11.0 


40.80 


50 


11,100 


19,300 


9.5 


46.10 


55 


14,400 


24.300 


8.0 


56.80 


60 


18,100 


29,900 


7.0 


66.80 



QUALITY II. 

Table 10(6) — Total yield and value of stands of chestnut in 
board feet and cords at different ages. 



Yield Per Acre of Trees 
10 Inches and Over. 



C0£ Q.B 

<- -+-<=> 

-^ B_,i-< ■ 
— '^ „ ^ 
B ?; * 

-. CD k. 
05 CD „ 

.2 £0^5 



c*c 



C 08 



So:?* 

£*B-« 

«■£ w 5 

K. 03 cc CS 



Age 



Doyle-Scribner, Actual cut, 



Years 


Board feet 


Board feet 


Long cords 


Dollars 


30 


200 


500 


17.3 


18.30 


35 


1,200 


2,600 


16.5 


21.70 


40 


2,300 


4,800 


15.5 


25.10 


45 


3,700 


7,400 


14.0 


28.80 


50 


5,400 


10,200 


13.0 


33.40 


55 


7,300 


13,300 


11.5 


38.10 


60 


9,400 


16,700 


10 . ' 


43.40 



QUALITY III. 

Table 10(c) — Total yield and vj-lue of stands of chestnut in 
board feet and cords at different ages. 











"■ O t -j 

CD.S Q. C 


*g£-° 










CC O"* 


CJ 0*^ u 


Yield 


Per Acre of Trees 


*.S5 2 U 


°= C V 9. 

fe^-6 2 




10 Inches and Over. 




«"°S^ 


g.«°* 












^ B 73 










Sh-- 1 " 


k^ 03 a. 03 


Age 


] 


Doyle-Scribner, 


Actual cut, 






Years 




Board feet 


Board feet 


Long cords 


Dollars 


40 




400 | 


1,000 | 


17.5 


19.50 


45 




1,300 | 


2.800 | 


18.0 


23.60 


50 




2,400 | 


4,900 


17.0 


26.80 


55 




3,600 | 


7,200 | 


15.3 


29.90 


60 




5,000 | 


9,600 


13.5 


32.70 



chestnut in tennessee. 33 

Relation of Board Feet to Cubic Feet and Cords. 

Table 11 shows the number of board feet (scaled by the Doyle- 
Scribner rule) to 1 cubic foot and to 1 cord of merchantable volume 
for trees of different diameters. It is evident from this table that as 
the diameters of the trees increase a greater number of board feet 
can be obtained for every cubic foot and consequently for every cord 
of merchantable volume. Thus, only 3 board feet can be obtained per 
cubic foot for trees 12 inches in diameter, while from trees 30 
inches in diameter 5.2 board feet can be obtained for every cubic 
foot. In addition the lumber from the larger trees is of better 
quality than from the smaller ones. This means that, in many 
instances, it is more profitable to convert the smaller trees into 
extract wood than into lumber. For instance, if the stumpage price 
of lumber is $2 per thousand board feet and of extract wood $1 per 
cord, the same amount of material from 12-inch trees would be 
worth $1 if sold as extract wood and 63 cents if sold as lumber. On 
the other hand, from 30-inch trees the same amount of material 
would be worth $1 if sold as extract wood and $1.11 if sold as lum- 
ber. At these stumpage prices the timber is worth more as extract 
wood from trees up to 24 inches in diameter, and more as lumber 
from larger trees. If the actual mill cut, which overruns the values 
given by the Doyle-Scribner rule, were used as a basis, the number 
of board feet per cord would be greater, and the value of the trees 
for lumber correspondingly increased. In these calculations the 
slabs from the saw logs are given no value, and tops, which would 
not be merchantable as sawlogs, are excluded. 

Table 11 — Board feet (Doyle-Scribner rule) per cubic foot and 
per cord for trees of different diameters. 



34 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 



— 


Board feet per 


Board feet per 


Value of a cord 


Diameter, breast- 


cubic foot of 


cord of mer- 


at $2 per thou- 


high. 


merchantable 


chantable vol- 


sand board ft. 




volume. 


ume. 





Inches 


Board feet 


Board feet 


Dollars 


12 


3.0 


313 


$0.63 


13 


3.1 


322 


0.64 


14 


3.2 


333 


0.67 


15 


3.4 


342 


0.68 


16 


3.5 


364 


0.73 


17 


3.6 


376 


0.75 


18 


3.8 


386 


0.77 


19 


4.0 


407 


0.81 


20 


4.2 


429 


0.86 


21 


4.3 


448 


0.90 


22 


4.4 


461 


0.92 


23 


4.6 


472 


0.94 


24 


4.8 


493 


0.99 


25 


4.9 


515 


1.03 


26 


5.0 


526 


1.05 


27 


5.0 


535 


1.07 


28 


5.1 


538 


1.08 


29 * 


5.2 


546 


1.09 


30 


5.2 


556 


1.11 



SUMMARY. 

Chestnut is one of the most widely distributed trees of Tennes- 
see, and the most important tree in the mountains of the eastern 
portion of the State, occupying large areas of land which have a 
low agricultural value. 

The great number of uses to which the wood is put enables ex- 
tremely close utilization not only of all portions of sound trees, in- 
cluding limbs and bark, but also a large amount of more or less 
defective wood. Small trees are used for poles, posts, and ties; 
targe, sound trees for lumber and shingles. Tops and low-grade 
wood are used for tannic extract, fuel wood, and paper pulp stock. 

Chestnut is not only a tree of rapid growth, but reproduces 
easily from seed and vigorous and abundant sprouts even from large 
old stumps. It forms pure stands or large, pure groups over exten- 
sive areas, permitting cheap utilization, and makes heavy yields at 
an early age. Under average conditions of growth, yields of 40 cords 
of tannic acid extract wood; or more than 300 No. 1 (7-in. by 9-in. 
by 8.5-ft.) ties; or 90 large poles; or 10,000 board feet of lumber, 
can be obtained per acre within 50 years from unthinned but pro- 
tected second-growth stands. When logged for poles, lumber, or 
ties, about 13 cords of extract wood can also be obtained. If the 



CHESTNUT IN TENNESSEE. 35 

stands are thinned, the yield can probably be doubled in the same 
time. For these reasons chestnut is one of the most promising 
trees for forest management. 

To obtain the best yields from chestnut stands, protection from 
fire is absolutely necessary, because the trees, and particularly the 
young trees, are extremely sensitive to fire injury. It is also neces- 
sary to protect young stands from cattle, since considerable damage 
results from browsing the foliage and young shoots. 

In order to develop the maximum producing value of the forest, 
different methods of cutting should be used in different types and 
classes of forest. Large sawtimber should be grown only in the 
coves and on other good s ; tuations. Inaccessible old stands which 
can be used only for lumber should be cut to a relatively low diame- 
ter limit (16 inches) , the large, unsound trees being left for possible 
future cutting for extract wood and for seed trees, and the smaller 
trees for increase in growth. Seedling stands are desirable and 
w.ould be encouraged by this method of cutting. When extract wood 
can be sold, old stands on good soils should be cut to about the same 
diameter limit, if the production of sawtimber is the chief object 
of management, but all of the large, old defective trees should be 
removed for extract wood. On the ridges old timber should be cut 
for extract wood to a diameter of 8 or 10 inches, with the object of 
obtaining even-aged sprout stands which on such sites will give in 
a short rotation a higher yield than seedling stands, because of the 
more rapid growth of sprouts than seedlings when young. When 
there is no market for extract wood, and only sawtimber can be 
exploited, chestnut on the ridges can be cut to a diameter of 14 
inches breast high, which would permit a second profitable cutting 
to be made within 15 years. 

Even-aged, second-growth sprout and seedling stands, such as 
occur on farms, and on old charcoal cuttings, should be cut clean in 
not more than three cuttings, made at intervals of from 5 to 10 
years, in order to replace the stands by even-aged sprout stands. 
The yield Of such stands, in ties, poles, and lumber, and even in cord- 
wood, can be greatly increased by thinning the stands while young, 
at regular intervals, removing the large crooked and forked trees 
and the tall, slender trees with narrow or one-sided crowns, and 
leaving the larger best-formed trees for the mature stand. 



\ 



